Electrical Fire Safety- Short Question & Answer

1. Electrical burns

The most common shock-related, nonfatal injury is a burn. There are three types of burns caused by electricity: electrical burns, arc burns, and thermal burns.
Electrical burns are caused by a person touching electrical wiring or equipment that is used or improperly maintained. These burns are usually to the hands and are one of the most serious types of burns and require immediate medical attention.
Thermal burns are cause by clothing that has caught on fire or skin coming in contact with overheated equipment.
Arc blasts occur when high-amp currents arc through the air due to equipment failure from abuse or fatigue. Arc blast temperatures can reach 35,000 degrees F.

Hazard control means PREVENTION, which requires:
1. A process that consider engineering 
2. Identifying unsafe conditions 
3. Correcting unsafe behaviors 
4. Analyzing hazard information 
5. Ultimately controlling or correcting the identified hazard

Steps RISK Assessment 
1. Identify hazards
2. Identify people who will be affected
3. Risk assessment and determine the needs of the crisis
4. Record the results and implementation requirements
5. Review evaluation and update their information as required

The ELECTRIC SHOCK depends on three factor, are:
1. A quantity of the electric current which pass through the body.
2. Duration of electric shock.
3. The passage which electric current passed through it.

Safety Signs and Signals:
- Prohibition 
- Warning 
- Mandatory 
- Safe condition 
- Fire

SOURCES of IGNITION 
1.Naked flames from heaters, smoking, etc.
.
2.Static electricity
.
3.Welding and cutting tools
.
4.Sparks from metal-grinding
.
5.Sparks from electrical equipment
.
6.Hot surfaces from heaters, poorly maintained equipment, etc.

During the welding process, welders should consider using appropriate protective clothing which should include: 
1. Shield or helmet with a filtered lens.
2. Fire resistant gloves; a leather apron. 
3. Boots. 
4. Leather spats. 
5. Felt skull-cap or beret and preferably overalls.

Roles and responsibilities of people within an organization

Workers

1.Have a responsibility to look after their own health and safety and any other person who might be affected by what they do

2. Should co-operate at all times with their employer on all issues of health and safety

3. Should use tools and other equipment correctly and not interfere with or misuse equipment provided for health and safety

4.May have other specific responsibilities, e.g. carrying out health and safety checks

Managers and Supervisors Should make sure that:

1.Workers have received necessary health and safety training

2.Risk assessments are carried out and controls implemented

3.Emergency procedures are obeyed

4.Workers use the correct PPE

5.Safe working practices are followed The degree of supervision will depend on the level of risk, complexity of the work and competency of workers Negligent managers can be prosecuted under UK law

Roles and responsibilities of people within an organization

Directors

•Health and safety should be seen as an important part of business activity

•Members of the Board and senior managers have both a collective and individual responsibility for the health, safety and welfare of workers

•In the UK and many other countries, senior company representatives can be prosecuted if they have been negligent

•The Board should also endorse and formally sign the health and safety policy

Roles and responsibilities of people within an organization
Employers

Have a responsibility for the health, safety and welfare of workers and the health and safety of anyone else who is affected by their work activities, e.g.

•Visitors
•Agency workers
•Contractors
•The general public

Health, Safety and Welfare

Health:
Refers to all aspects of maintaining a healthy and safe workplace where harm to people is prevented.

Safety: 
The results of ALL persons taking positive actions to identify accident causes and implement suitable preventative measures 

Welfare:
The availability of facilities and presence of conditions required for reasonably comfortable, healthy and secure living

Emergency Evacuation Procedures

Role of fire marshals
1.Supervise fire evacuation

2.Take charge of emergency until emergency services arrive

3.Take a roll call

4.Should be properly trained

5.Can have a role in fire risk assessment and inspections

Means of Escape

1.Should be protected and compartmentalized by ‘fire doors’ which:
a.Should always open in the direction of travel along the escape route
b.Are rated by the amount of protection they give
c.Are fitted with intumescent strips
2.People should know where to go in the event of a fire evacuation, e.g. assembly point

Portable fire-fighting equipment

1.Extinguishers, hoses, fire blankets are an important first line of defence

2.Designed for relatively small fires and should only be operated by people who are trained (but all workers should be familiar with basic operation)

3.Fire extinguishers should be:
a)Sited in suitable locations, e.g. on escape routes
b)Signposted
c)Regularly maintained

Safe systems of work

•Particularly risky jobs include:

1.Welding and other hot work
2.Using flammable chemicals like paint-spraying
3.Removing petrol from a car

•Safe systems of work should be followed, which may include a formal permit-to-work system

Good housekeeping

1.Keep corridors, passageways, aisles and walkways clear

2.Ensure all flammable and combustible materials are properly handled and stored and kept away from sources of fuel / ignition

3.Ensure bins are regularly emptied and the waste safely disposed

Control of fuel sources

1.Levels of flammable material kept to a minimum

2.Good housekeeping

3.Extra care should be given to materials that give out particularly toxic smoke

4.Store flammable materials safely

Control of ignition sources

1.Substituting open fires or gas burners with safer alternatives

2.Correct selection and maintenance of equipment

3.Controls on hot work, e.g. welding

4.Restrictions on smoking

Fire risk assessment

The role and benefits of fire risk assessment

The responsible person should arrange for a risk assessment to be conducted by a competent person

Aims of fire risk assessment:

1.To identify the fire hazards

2.To reduce the risk of those hazards causing harm to as low as is reasonably practicable

3.To decide what physical fire precautions and management arrangements are needed to ensure the safety of people in your premises if a fire does start

Fire consequences

1.Death and serious injury

2.Almost half of all deaths relating to fire are caused by gas and smoke inhalation, with the remainder being from burns; oxygen depletion; and injury from structural collapse

3.Other consequences:
a.Structural damage to buildings
b.Equipment and stock damage
c.Delay and loss of business
d.Damage from fire-fighting
e.Environmental damage

Main causes of fire

1.Deliberate ignition, e.g. arson

2.Often involving petrol and occurring at night

3.Certain buildings more prone, e.g. private garages and sheds; construction industry premises; recreational and other cultural services premises; and schools

4.Accidental fires, e.g. caused by faulty appliances and leads, misuse of equipment or appliances, smokers’ materials; cooking oil fires; horseplay

Sources of oxygen
1.The air around us
.
2.Stored oxygen, e.g. in cylinders
.
3.Stored materials, e.g. oxidizing substances such as hydrogen peroxide and sodium hypocellularity (bleach)

SOURCES of IGNITION 
1.Naked flames from heaters, smoking, etc.
.
2.Static electricity
.
3.Welding and cutting tools
.
4.Sparks from metal-grinding
.
5.Sparks from electrical equipment
.
6.Hot surfaces from heaters, poorly maintained equipment, etc.

How are Confined Spaces treated on Ships ?

How are Confined Spaces treated on Ships?

How are Confined Spaces treated on Ships? I know nothing of marine safety, only that what little legislation I've seen exempts ships and docks in general terms, but ships and crews must face the same hazards as land based confined spaces. 

This question was prompted by watching a TV programme called 'Mighty Ships' which showed a new Norwegian cruise ship, in it, an engineer was seen inspecting ballast tanks below the water line, he was alone (apart from the film crew!) he did not have any equipment other than a torch. There was only one entrance and that was tight - not really big enough for a BA set, so why if it was such a new ship was the entrance hole not bigger too?

  As far as i know the hazards and the risks associated with entry into a confined space whether on board ship or on land doesn't differ the slightest. There may be slight differences between country to country's Act and regulations on the procedures and permit requirements for a confined space. So how to treat entering a confined space? Firstly follow the statutory requirements of the country where the ship is berthed, or docked unless you are in international water either underway or cruising.Ensure a thorough inspections is carried out for presence of O2, H2S, N2O, CO, and VOCs. Provides for illuminations, ventilations and LOTO where spadings are crried out to all inlets and outlets valves using appropriately rated blinds.De-energized all electrical power associated with the confined space (LOTO). Prior to entering a standby person manned at the entry point and if necessary a team of rescuer. Use SCBA only when it is necessary because it poses more risk than benefits. Oxygen content at all time in the CS must not be less than 19.5 percent and not exceeding 32.5percent. Comply to all other requirements related to the task intended. Eg. Hot work, working at height etc inside the confined space. Lastly do not enter alone.

  .Safe Working in Confined Spaces; 

Size of openings to enable safe access to and egress from confined 
spaces 

93 Experience has shown that the minimum size of an opening to allow access 
with full rescue facilities including self-contained breathing apparatus is 575 mm 
diameter. This size should normally be used for new plant, although the openings 
for some confined spaces may need to be larger depending on the circumstances, 
for example, to take account of a fully equipped employee, or the nature of the 
opening 
. 
94 Existing plant may have narrower openings. It will therefore be necessary 
to check that a person wearing suitable equipment can safely and readily pass 
through such openings. Choice of airline breathing apparatus in such cases offers 
a more compact alternative to bulkier self-contained apparatus. Examples of plant 
where there are narrower openings include rail tank wagons and tank containers 
where an opening of 500 mm diameter is common, and in road tankers where 
the recognised size is 410 mm. Even smaller openings can be found in the highly 
specialised nature of access to certain parts of aircraft, such as to fuel tanks in 
wings. Precautions need to take account of such special cases. 

95 The size and number of access and egress points should be assessed 
individually dependent upon the activities being carried out and the number of 
people involved. Large-scale evacuations may need larger routes and openings to 
prevent them becoming bottlenecks. Top openings to vessels, tanks etc should 
be avoided due to difficulty of access and rescue. Bottom or low manholes are 
preferable and may need access platforms. There may be occasions when access 
and egress is so tortuous, for example, in the double bottom of a ship, that 
temporary openings may be needed. 

So 575mm is seen as the minimum dimension for UK applications. As the access point will have a fixed dimension then we must also consider the physical build of those who we select to enter, work in and leave the confined space.

Difference between Job Safety Analysis and Work Permit

How you will explain the Difference between Job Safety Analysis and Work Permit.

1. job safety analysis (JSA) and safe work method are all tools used to manage risk. 

Step out the task activities 
Identify the hazards (what could hurt someone?) 
Grade and register the initial Risk involved in performing the task 
Identify ways to eliminate or control the risk 
Grade and register the residual risk after the controls are put in place 

A Permit to work system is a formal written system used to control certain types of work which are identify as potentially hazardous. It is also a means of communication between site/installation management, plant supervisors and operators and those who carry out the work. 

best regards

2 • The PTW ( Permit To Work ) special case of safe system of work must be in written used to identify the hazards and the methods to control these hazards with safe and proper manner and PTW can be done by designated people (permit holder , Person in charge ,,etc ) 
The PTW can cover the entire activity or process from the begining to the end with a safe and control manner 
JSA is proactive measure used to identify the existing and the potential hazards by involving employees , share ideas ,suggest solutions divide the task into steps and study each one individually with the people involved in the task

3• A JSA is an assessment done on a specific task such as climbing a tower to install antennas. One systematically lists the hazards and associated risks aligned with the task, and puts in place controls to ensure a safe job execution. While a Work Permit, is general assessment done on a nature of activities such as hot works, to ensure foreseeable risks are controlled to prevent any incidents/accidents. In summary JSA applies to a specific task while Work permits apply to a nature of tasks.

4 • Before any work permit is given for a specific task or job there should be JSA to analyse the hazard associated with that Task making sure you have put all remedial action in place or resolve those you can before that Job commences. Don't do any Job without JSA. we can also do JSA when we want to change management. Making sure you introduce the Job properly and all hazard associate it.

5 • Job safety analysis (JSA), is a safety management tool in which the risks or hazards of a specific job in the workplace are identified, and then measures to eliminate or control those hazards are determined and implemented. More specifically, a job safety analysis is a process of systematically evaluating certain jobs, tasks, processes or procedures and eliminating or reducing the risks or hazards to as low as reasonably practical (ALARP) in order to protect workers from injury or illness. The JSA process is documented and the JSA document is used in the workplace or at the job site to guide workers in safe job performance. 

A work permit system is a formal written system to control certain types of work when these are identified as potentially hazardous. The terms "P.T.W.", "permit" or "work permit" refer to the form used in such system which is used by a company to meet its needs. These systems aim to ensure proper planning and consideration are given to the risks involved in a particular job, at a specific time and place, with designated precautions

6 • The simple understanding about these two are as like this .JSA is a systematical method in which all the related risks in a specified work is mentioned and its remedies. WORK PERMIT is an official authorization to perform a work.

7 • JSA is job safety analysis means identification of the hazard related to the job and precautionary measure to betaken for the elimination of the hazard is called JSA. 

Work permit. is a written document which is authorized a group and person to perform the duties acording to permit condition . permit is issued by authorized person and received by competent person jointly visit the site before working / job decided the precautionary measure and procedure .

8 • PTW is an on line system for definite wide range of activities that held in organization,especially in oil & gas industries.and i think "clarifying responsibilities" is the main object of this system. 
JSA is a systematic approach for risk reduction.

9 • Job Safety Analysis or Job Hazard Analysis is the first step in determining all hazards of any job, by analyzing each job task. Safe Work Methods or Safe Operating Procedures are usually developed from the JSA or JHA. It is difficult to write safe operating procedures without first determining the job hazards. In 2011 I published a book detailing a Job Hazard Analysis process. If anyone is interested please let me know

10 • It is my understanding that a JSA looks at current and prospective injury/illness exposures (I like clients to do these prospectively to force them to anticipate issues and prepare accordingly) and detail actions to minimize these risks, and work (safety) permits do the same for risks and exposures that develop and could not be anticipated. Clients working at Harvard are required to complete and submit Pre-Task Plans prior to performing high risk work. 

11 • Most Work Permits have an element that embodies the SWP for the task being Permitted (along with other specific sections as determined by the "client"). The permit it issued by the plant operator for a specific period of time in which the task may be carried out. They may be written by the contractor, then simply signed off on, or may actually require an eyes on by someone from operations to identify visually the area of focus prior to Permit issuance (typical in live plant operations). Depending on the work taking place Work Permits are further broken down into sub-categories Hot Work Permits / Cold Work Permits / Confined Space Permits / Ground Disturbance Permits etc, etc, etc., (or combinations of the above to cover one area of operation).
The Permitting System is in place so that there are no tasks being undertaken on site that Operations is not aware of. how many, who they are, where they are, what they are doing, and when,they'll be doing it. .

 • PTW is one of the control system of any clients or big companies in all areas involving hazardous areas like CAT I, CATII, CAT III or ZONE 0, ZONE 1 and ZONE 2. and in any hazardous activities like CS., Excavation and work involving high voltage. 

while the JSA is a written work safety procedure in a specific activity. sometimes attached in submition of method statement and RA to approved the activity by the main safety consultant during the hazardous work like Rigging and Lifting. 
PTW is regulation and procedure while JSA is procedure. They are both safety tools.

12 • with Job Safety Assessment (JSA ) done prior to permit issuance. Safe Work Procedure /Practice (SWPs) as applied to the task assist in permit completion & Field Level Risk/Hazard Assessments (FLRA/FLHAs) are done by the crew, at the location, after the permit is issued, but before work begins.

Air Compressor

The three basic types of air compressors are

·        reciprocating

·        rotary screw

·        rotary centrifugal

These types are further specified by:

·        the number of compression stages

·        cooling method (air, water, oil)

·        drive method (motor, engine, steam, other)

·        lubrication (oil, Oil-Free where Oil Free means no lubricating oil contacts the compressed air)

·        packaged or custom-built

Reciprocating Air Compressors

Reciprocating air compressors are positive displacement machines, meaning that they increase the pressure of the air by reducing its volume. This means they are taking in successive volumes of air which is confined within a closed space and elevating this air to a higher pressure. The reciprocating air compressor accomplishes this by a piston within a cylinder as the compressing and displacing element.

Single-stage and two-stage reciprocating compressors are commercially available.

·        Single-stage compressors are generally used for pressures in the range of 70 psig to 100 psig.

Two-stage compressors are generally used for higher pressures in the range of 100 psig to 250 psig.

Note that

·        1 HP ~ 4 CFM at 100 psi

and that 1 to 50 HP are typically for reciprocating units. Compressors 100 hp and above are typically Rotary Screw or Centrifugal Compressors.

The reciprocating air compressor is single acting when the compressing is accomplished using only one side of the piston. A compressor using both sides of the piston is considered double acting.

Load reduction is achieved by unloading individual cylinders. Typically this is accomplished by throttling the suction pressure to the cylinder or bypassing air either within or outside the compressor. Capacity control is achieved by varying speed in engine-driven units through fuel flow control.

Reciprocating air compressors are available either as air-cooled or water-cooled in lubricated and non-lubricated configurations and provide a wide range of pressure and capacity selections.

Rotary Screw Compressors

Rotary air compressors are positive displacement compressors. The most common rotary air compressor is the single stage helical or spiral lobe oil flooded screw air compressor. These compressors consist of two rotors within a casing where the rotors compress the air internally. There are no valves. These units are basically oil cooled (with air cooled or water cooled oil coolers) where the oil seals the internal clearances.

Since the cooling takes place right inside the compressor, the working parts never experience extreme operating temperatures. The rotary compressor, therefore, is a continuous duty, air cooled or water cooled compressor package.

Rotary screw air compressors are easy to maintain and operate. Capacity control for these compressors is accomplished by variable speed and variable compressor displacement. For the latter control technique, a slide valve is positioned in the casing. As the compressor capacity is reduced, the slide valve opens, bypassing a portion of the compressed air back to the suction. Advantages of the rotary screw compressor include smooth, pulse-free air output in a compact size with high output volume over a long life.

The oil free rotary screw air compressor utilizes specially designed air ends to compress air without oil in the compression chamber yielding true oil free air. Oil free rotary screw air compressors are available air cooled and water cooled and provide the same flexibility as oil flooded rotaries when oil free air is required.

Centrifugal Compressors

The centrifugal air compressor is a dynamic compressor which depends on transfer of energy from a rotating impeller to the air.

Centrifugal compressors produce high-pressure discharge by converting angular momentum imparted by the rotating impeller (dynamic displacement). In order to do this efficiently, centrifugal compressors rotate at higher speeds than the other types of compressors. These types of compressors are also designed for higher capacity because flow through the compressor is continuous.

Adjusting the inlet guide vanes is the most common method to control capacity of a centrifugal compressor. By closing the guide vanes, volumetric flows and capacity are reduced.

The centrifugal air compressor is an oil free compressor by design. The oil lubricated running gear is separated from the air by shaft seals and atmospheric vents.

BHOPAL GAS DISASTER

BHOPAL GAS DISASTER

It was the night of 2nd December 1984 when the night shift staff of the Union Carbide Factory, Bhopal, took a round at @ II pm. There were three double walled, partly buried S.S. tanks (No. 610, 611 and 619) each of 60 tonne capacity and all containing the poisonous gas MIC (Methyl isocyanate) to be used to produce a deadly pesticide Carbaryl. At @ 11-30 pm. workers in the plant realised that there was a MIC leak some where : their eyes began to tear. A few of them went to the MIC structure and noticed a drip of liquid with yellowish-white gas, about 50 feet of the ground. They told .the supervisor who, however, decided to deal with the leak after the tea-break which ended at 1240 night. Meanwhile the events had moved very fast.

· 

 The temperature of the tank 610 had reached 25°C the top of its scale and the pressure was increased twenty times rushing towards 40 psi at which the emergency safety valve was to open. Soon the pressure gauge showed 55 psi, the top of the scale and the safety valve had opened releasing MIC With a loud hissing sound and the tremendous heat.  A white cloud drifting over. the plant was. moving towards the sleeping neighbourhood.

· 

 The workers tried to operate the safety devices, but nothing seemed to work. The water jet failed to reach the top of the 120 feet stack from which MIC was escaping.  The vent gas scrubber to neutralise the escaping gas did not work. The scrubber was under maintenance,, the flow meter was not indicating the circulation of caustic soda whose concentration was also not known since October. The flare tower to burn off the gas could not be 'used because its piping was corroded and not replaced. The refrigeration system, of 30 tonne capacity, to keep the MIC in liquid state at 0°C was closed down since June 1984 as an economy drive and the gas was at 15°-20°C Which was unsafe. For approximately two hours, the safety valve remained opened releasing over 50000 pounds of MIC (might also containing Phosgene, Chloroform, Hydrogen cyanide. Carbon dioxide etc.) out of 90000 pounds stored in the tank No. 610 at the time of the incident. Sometime between 1-30 to 2-30 am. the safety valve reseated as the tank pressure went below 40 psi.

BHOPAL GAS DISASTER UNSAFE CONDITION

Unsafe Conditions

 From the published press reports they seem to be:

1.         The refrigeration system to keep the gas cool was closed since long.

2.         The vent gas scrubber was under designed, not repaired and not connected.

3.         The corroded flare tower pipe not replaced and not connected.

· 

4.         The water curtain jests were underdesigned to reach the maximum height.

5.         All the three tanks were filled in while one ought to have kept empty to use as emergency bypass.

6.         The computerised pressure/temperature sensing system, a warning device to give alarm and to control the situation at the time of abnormal condition was not installed.

7.         The carbon steel valves were used instead of stainless steel and the valves 'were notorious for leaking.

8.         The instruments to check the valve-leakage were not available.

9.         The wind direction and velocity indicator was not installed to warn the people about leakage direction and severity.

10.       The neighbouring community was not told of the significance of the danger alarm and the dangers posed by the materials used in the plant.

11.       Control instruments at the plant were faulty.

12.       Maintenance and operational practices were deteriorated.

13.       Chemical reactors, piping and valves were not purged, washed and aired before maintenance operations.

14.       The blind disc to disallow the water in the tank through the valve was missing.

15.       Under qualified workers were running the factory.

16.       People with chemical engineering background were replaced by less skilled operators.

17.       The workers' strength was reduced from 850 to 642 during preceding two years and the operators duty relieving system was suspended.

18.       The operating manual was grossly inadequate, not specifying all necessary emergency procedures to control abnormal conditions.

19.       At the time of accident, in the MIC control room, there was only one operator who found it virtually impossible to check the 70-odd panels, indicators and controllers.

20.       A design modification of jumper line to interconnect relief valve vent header and the process vent header was defective, as it allowed the water to go into the MIC tank.

BHOPAL GAS DISASTER UNSAFE REACTIONS

Unsafe Actions:

 1.         The leak was not attended as soon as it was reported. Initial time passed in tea break.

2.         The first information of five-fold pressure rise was dismissed in the belief that the pressure gauge could be faulty.

3.         A newly recruited supervisor had asked a novice operator to clean a pipe and the blind disc was not inserted while doing so.

4.         The public siren was put on around 1 am. nearly an hour after the gas leakage and that too for a few minutes.

5.         The correct antidotes and medical treatments were not suggested to surrounding doctors. On the contrary confusion of MIC or Phosgene or Hydrogen cyanide was confounded.

     Unsafe Reactions:

 Above unsafe conditions and actions lead to the violent unsafe reaction. Different hypothesis have been expounded by Carbide's scientists, Indian experts and Dr. S. Varadrajan, who lead the investigations on behalf of the Government.  According to him small quantity of water reacted with Phosgene in the tank, mixed with MIC as animpurity to make it unstable. The Phosgene water reaction (hydrolysis) produced heat, CO₂, and HCI.  The heat and HCI acted as the accelerators of the polymerisation, additions and degradation of MIC leading to a runaway reaction. According to others, the increased temperature of MIC (it vaporises above 38°C) generated heat, pressure and side-reactions, higher than normal amount of Chloroform in the stored MIC and an iron catalyst lead to the violet reaction.  Because of the colder night of December, the escaped MIC settled down and travelled downward covering the sleeping surroundings with the blanket of death and damages.

BHOPAL GAS DISASTER REMEDIAL MEASURES

Remedial Measures :

 All the 25 major causes of this accident stated above in (A) and (B) suggest the remedial measures. To avoid repetition, all these contributing causes should be removed first and necessary steps should be taken to run the plant always safe and sound, with all the safety devices properly working.  The working conditions must be improved and unsafe actions must be removed by proper policy, training and education.

 Lessons of Bhopal are well described in the foreword to the IOCU (International Organisation of Consumers Union) in the following words :

 "..  the deadly cloud that wrought havoc at Bhopal... will continue to rear its ugly head in many forms, in many sizes and in many places. Obviously there are many lessons to be learnt about occupational health and safety, about proper sitting of production facilities, about science and technology, about access to information, about trade secrecy, about 'cover ups', about 'double standards',  about medical and legal remedies, about the responsibilities of transnational corporations, governments and international agencies and most crucial of all about what ordinary people can and must do to protect themselves from the plague of such deadly clouds."

 Bhopal incident opened the eyes and gave many lessons for the multinationals, for developed countries and for the developing countries.

 Human life must be equally valued everywhere. No double standard for developed and developing countries. 'Right to know' and 'Obligation to tell' concepts are to be covered by legislation. Training to staff, and workers, emergency procedures, highest standards for plant operation and maintenance and safety equipment, 'worst case' study and assessment, etc. were incorporated in 1987 by the amendment of our Factories Act, 1948.